Light emitting diodes with low refractive index material layers to reduce light guiding effects

ABSTRACT

Light emitting diodes including low refractive index layers for reducing guided light are disclosed. The light-emitting diodes include at least one n-doped layer, at least one p-doped layer, and an active region disposed between the at least one n-doped layer and the at least one p-doped layer. The active region comprises a light-emitting material. The light-emitting diode further comprises at least one low refractive index layer disposed in or around the active region.

This application claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) of U.S.Provisional Application No. 61/607,188 filed on Mar. 6, 2012, whichincorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

FIELD

The disclosure relates to the field of light extraction fromlight-emitting diodes (LEDs), and more particularly to for the use oflow refractive index material layers to reduce light guiding effects inlight emitting diodes.

BACKGROUND

The issue of light extraction from light-emitting diodes (LEDs) iswell-known. LEDs are made of a high refractive index semiconductormaterial. Unfortunately, a fraction of the light generated by the LEDinternally reflects from the interfaces with the outside medium (eitherair or an encapsulant) due to total internal reflection. This light iscalled guided light. Its existence is detrimental to the performance ofthe LED because it limits light extraction. Various approaches can beused to extract guided light, such as shaping the LED, or rougheningsome of the surfaces. These approaches aim at breaking the guidedtrajectories so as to increase light extraction. However, conventionaltechniques fail to reduce the guided light and thereby fail to maximizelight extraction from LEDs.

Therefore, improved methods for increasing light extraction efficiencyand in particular reducing guided light in LEDs is desired.

BRIEF SUMMARY

Light emitting diodes including low refractive index layers for reducingguided light are disclosed. The light-emitting diodes include at leastone n-doped layer, at least one p-doped layer, and an active regiondisposed between the at least one n-doped layer and the at least onep-doped layer. The active region comprises a light-emitting material.The light-emitting diode further comprises at least one low refractiveindex layer disposed in or around the active region.

In a first aspect, light-emitting diodes are provided comprising: atleast one n-doped layer; at least one p-doped layer; an active regioncomprising of at least one layer of light-emitting material, disposedbetween the at least one n-doped layer and the at least one p-dopedlayer; and at least one low refractive index layer disposed within oneoptical wavelength of the active region, the low refractive index layerconfigured to substantially reduce light guiding by the active region.

In a second aspect, light-emitting diodes are provided comprising: atleast one n-doped layer comprising a gallium-nitride-based material atleast one p-doped layer comprising a gallium-nitride-based material; anAlGaN/InGaN superlattice characterized by an average refractive indexthat is less than whose average index does not exceed that of GaN bymore than 0.05; an active region comprising a series of quantum wells orone or more double heterostructures, wherein the active region ischaracterized by a total thickness of less than 50 nm; and an electronblocking layer whose refractive index is lower than that of GaN minus0.05.

In a third aspect, light-emitting diodes are provided comprising: atleast one n-doped layer comprising a gallium-nitride-based material; atleast one p-doped layer comprising a gallium-nitride-based material; anactive region disposed between the at least one n-doped layer and the atleast one p-doped layer, the active region comprising one or more layersformed of an indium-gallium-nitride-based material; and at least one lowrefractive index material layer disposed between the at least onep-doped layer and the active region, or between the at least one n-dopedlayer and the active region, wherein the at least one low refractiveindex material layer has an index of refraction lower than an index ofrefraction of gallium nitride.

In a fourth aspect, methods of fabricating a light-emitting diode areprovided comprising: providing a substrate, the substrate including asurface region comprising a gallium-nitride-based material; forming atleast one n-doped layer coupled to the surface region of the substrate,the at least one n-doped layer comprising a gallium-nitride-basedmaterial; forming an active region coupled to the n-doped layer, theactive region comprising one or more layers formed of anindium-gallium-nitride-based material; forming at least one p-dopedlayer coupled to the active region, the at least one p-doped layercomprising a gallium-nitride-based material; and forming at least onelow refractive index material layer disposed between the at least onep-doped layer and the active region, or between the at least one n-dopedlayer and the active region, wherein the at least one low refractiveindex layer has an index of refraction lower than an index of refractionof gallium nitride and the low refractive index layer is formed tosubstantially reduce light guiding by the active region.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a simplified diagram of an LED grown on a GaN substrate,according to some embodiments.

FIG. 2 is a simplified diagram of an LED grown on a sapphire substratewith a transparent p-contact, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 3 shows experimental results of a luminescence spectrum and anabsorption spectrum of an LED emitting light at a wavelength of about400 nm and with guided light in the active region, according to someembodiments.

FIG. 4 is a chart illustrating modeling results for the fraction oflight being guided in the active region of an LED as a function of thenumber of quantum wells, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 5 is a simplified diagram illustrating an LED with low refractiveindex layers straddling the active region, according to someembodiments.

FIGS. 6A and 6B are simplified diagrams illustrating guided modeprofiles in an LED with a design having an electron blocking layer, anda design having a low refractive index material layer, respectively,according to some embodiments.

FIGS. 7A and 7B illustrate modeled guided mode profiles for an LED witha design having an electron blocking layer, and a design having a lowrefractive index material layer, respectively, according to someembodiments. The index profiles for both designs are also shown.

FIG. 8 illustrates modeling results for the fraction of light beingguided in the active region of an LED as a function of number of quantumwells, with various compositions in a low refractive index materiallayer, according to some embodiments. The modeling results for an LEDstructure with no electron-blocking layer and no low refractive indexmaterial layer is shown for reference.

FIG. 9 illustrates modeling results for the fraction of light beingguided in the active region of an LED as a function of number of quantumwells, for various thicknesses of a low refractive index material layer,according to some embodiments. The modeling results for an LED structurewith no electron-blocking layer and no low refractive index materiallayer is shown for reference.

FIG. 10 illustrates modeling results for the fraction of light beingguided in the active region of an LED as a function of number of quantumwells, for various compositions of quantum barriers, according to someembodiments. The modeling results for an LED structure with noelectron-blocking layer and no low refractive index material layer isshown for reference.

FIG. 11 Shows modeling results for the fraction of light being guided inthe active region of an LED that includes low refractive index materialbarriers and low refractive index material electron barrier layers, as afunction of the number of quantum wells, according to some embodiments.The modeling results for an LED structure with no electron-blockinglayer and no low refractive index material layer is also shown.

FIG. 12 is a simplified diagram illustrating a guided mode profile in anLED that includes a superlattice layer, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 13 shows modeling results for the fraction of light being guided inthe active region of an LED that includes low refractive index layersdisposed within a superlattice layer, as a function of the number ofquantum wells, according to some embodiments. The modeling results forthe fraction of light being guided in the active region of an LEDwithout an electron barrier layer, and with and without a superlatticelayer, are also shown.

FIG. 14 is a simplified flowchart illustrating a method of making anLED, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 15 shows experimental values of refractive index as a function ofwavelength for Group III-nitride compounds (1502, 1504, 1506, and 1508),and the emission spectrum of a Group III-nitride LED (1510), accordingto some embodiments.

FIG. 16 shows the refractive index of Group III-nitride compounds as afunction of the In or Al content, at a wavelength of 415 nm, accordingto some embodiments.

FIG. 17 shows a refractive index profile of a Group III-nitride LED witha quantum well active region, lower-content quantum wells and variouslow refractive index material layers, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 18 illustrates an experimental setup used to measure the presenceof guided light in an epitaxial structure.

FIG. 19 shows images of guided light collected at LED facets by theexperimental setup depicted in FIG. 18.

FIG. 20 shows a refractive index profile of a Group III-nitride LED witha double-heterostructure active region, lower-content quantum wells andvarious low refractive index material layers, according to someembodiments.

FIG. 21 shows the refractive index profile of a Group III-nitride LEDwith an active region comprising four quantum wells, a superlattice, andan electron blocking layer, for comparison with other embodiments.

FIG. 22 shows the fraction of guided light as a function of LED emissionwavelength, for the structure depicted in FIG. 21.

FIG. 23 shows the fraction of guided light as a function of t LEDemission wavelength, for an embodiment of the invention which is similarto FIG. 21 but having a low refractive index material layer to reduceguided light emission.

FIG. 24 shows the modeled extraction efficiency, as a function of thenumber of quantum wells, for a LED without a low refractive index layer(2402) and as compared to an LED having a low refractive index layer(2404).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS

Various embodiments will now be described more fully hereinafter withreference to the accompanying drawings, in which exemplary embodimentsare shown. Various aspects may, however, be embodied in many differentforms and should not be construed as limited to the embodiments setforth herein. Rather, these embodiments are provided so that thisdisclosure will be thorough and complete, and will fully convey thescope of the invention to those skilled in the art.

Some embodiments of the present disclosure are directed to an improvedapproach for implementing light emitting diodes with low refractiveindex material (LIM) layers to reduce light guiding effects. Moreparticularly, disclosed herein are methods and systems for lightemitting diode with LIM layers to reduce light guiding effects.

The issue of light extraction from light-emitting diodes (LEDs) iswell-known. LEDs are made of a high refractive index semiconductormaterial. Unfortunately, a fraction of the light generated in the LEDreflects from the interfaces with the outside medium (either air or anencapsulant) due to total internal reflection and into the activeregion. This light is called guided light. Its existence is detrimentalto the performance of the LED because it limits light extraction.Various approaches can be used to extract guided light, such as shapingthe LED, or roughening the surfaces of the LED. These approaches aim atbreaking the guided trajectories so as to increase light extraction.However, conventional techniques fail to consider the aspect ofminimizing or eliminating guided light within the active region.Moreover, applications of the aforementioned conventional techniques donot result in designs of light emitting diodes that employ LIM layers toreduce light guiding effects.

FIG. 1 shows a simplified diagram of an LED 100 grown on a GaNsubstrate, according to some embodiments. The LED grown on a bulk GaNsubstrate 101 is flipped on a submount 102. In addition to the lightguided in the LED due to total internal reflection at the GaN/airinterface 103, the active region 104 provides additional guiding 105. Aprofile of guided light 105 is depicted on the right side of the activeregion 104.

As illustrated in FIG. 1, the LED is grown on a bulk gallium nitride(GaN) substrate 101, and placed on a submount 102 which can serve as ap-contact. Light 106 is emitted by the active region 104. Some lighttrajectories are extracted to the outside medium 107, while othertrajectories 103 are guided within the LED structures. Another channelfor light guiding can exist which is usually not addressed inconventional designs, namely the additional light guiding effects 105within the active region 104 of the LED. The additional light guidingeffects 105 within the active region 104 of the LED apply to the LED ofFIG. 1 as well as to other types of LED configurations, for example, theLED illustrated in FIG. 2. GaN constitutes both the substrate materialof the LED, and its host material (i.e. the material grown on thesubstrate and constituting the matrix of the epitaxial layers, in whichother LED layers are embedded

FIG. 2 shows a simplified diagram of an LED 200 grown on a sapphiresubstrate 201 with a transparent p-contact 202, according to someembodiments. Light 203 is emitted by the active region 204. Some lighttrajectories are extracted to the outside medium 205, others areextracted into the sapphire substrate 206, and others 207 are guidedwithin the LED. Besides the light guided in the LED due to totalinternal reflection 205 at the GaN/air interface, the active region 204provides additional guiding 208. In some embodiments of an LED, theactive region 204 comprises light-emitting layers characterized by arefractive index that is larger than that of the host material of theLED. For example, in the case of a Group III-nitride LED, the activeregion is usually a stack of alternating InGaN quantum wells and galliumnitride quantum barriers (QB) grown on a gallium nitride host layer, therefractive index of InGaN being larger than that of GaN. In some casesthe quantum well/quantum barrier stack can be replaced by adouble-heterostructure active region. Here, the substrate is sapphirewhile the host material is GaN.

If the composition/number/thickness of the quantum well stack is largeenough, the active region can support one or more guided modes. Manycommercial LEDs include either a GaN/InGaN superlattice or a bulk InGaNlayer with moderate indium composition grown below the active region.This layer can also lead to undesired light guiding and/or increase theguiding effect caused by the active region.

As used herein, the term “guided mode” refers to guided light in theactive region (GLAR) and in the vicinity of the active region ratherthan to the regular light guided in the bulk (e.g., regions other thanthe-active region) of the LED. The fate of the guided light in theactive region (GLAR) is different from the fate of non-GLAR guidedlight. Non-GLAR guided light impinges on various interfaces with theoutside medium, so that shaping or texturing of these interfaces canlead to improved light extraction. The GLAR, on the other hand, isconfined to the vicinity of the active region only and can onlypropagate laterally across this layer. Therefore, conventionaltechniques for improved light extraction do not substantially affectGLAR.

In general, the existence of GLAR is due to the index contrast betweenlayers of high refractive index such as the light-emitting layers andsurrounding layers of lower refractive index. The layers of lowrefractive index may include the so-called host material, i.e. thematerial matrix grown on the substrate and in which various other LEDlayers are embedded. For instance, the host material is GaN both in thecase of a bulk GaN LED and of a GaN LED on a sapphire substrate. Thelayers of high refractive index may include the light-emitting layers,and other layers such as a superlattice that are in the vicinity of theactive region. GLAR may be characterized by the fact that it isevanescent in the host material or some other low refractive indexlayers, but is propagative in some high-index layers.

Upon its propagation, the GLAR can be re-absorbed by the active region,or be absorbed by other layers, such as by lossy contacts. In the caseof re-absorption by the active region, the created carrier pairs canfurther be re-emitted as light and thus undergo multipleabsorption-emission cycles. This multiple absorption-emission process,however, has a lower efficiency than a single absorption-emission cyclebecause the internal quantum efficiency of the active region is lessthan unity.

FIG. 3 shows experimental results of a luminescence spectrum and anabsorption spectrum of an LED emitting light at a wavelength of about400 nm and with guided light in the active region, according to someembodiments. The dotted line indicates the wavelength below which theabsorption coefficient is larger than about 0.02 μm⁻¹. This value ischosen in this depiction because it corresponds to a light absorptionlength of 50 μm, which is a small length compared to the lateral lengthof an LED. Therefore, guided light at the corresponding wavelength willbe re-absorbed by the active region before it can propagate asignificant lateral distance within the LED. Once a guided mode issupported, it can carry a large fraction of the total spontaneousemission of the active region.

FIG. 4 is a chart illustrating modeling results for the fraction oflight being guided in the active region of an LED as a function of thenumber of quantum wells, according to some embodiments. In the modeling,a refractive index step of 0.2 between GaN and InGaN is used. This valueis a realistic value as known in the art. As illustrated in FIG. 4, ifmore than eight quantum wells are used, up to 20% of the total emittedlight is guided. For a large number of quantum wells, the fraction ofGLAR reaches an asymptotic value of over 25%. Thus a substantial portionof the total power of the LED can be emitted as GLAR and ultimately lostto absorption, thus decreasing the performance of the LED. It istherefore desirable to avoid GLAR, or to limit its magnitude to a GLARvalue that represents less than 5% of the total emitted light.

Further discussion herein describes how layers of LIM can be used toreduce the fraction of light being guided in the active region in anLED. Some commercial LEDs include an AlGaN layer characterized by a lowrefractive index and that serves as an electron-blocking layer that isformed overlying the active region. However, the thickness andrefractive index of the electron-blocking layer are sometimes notsufficient to substantially reduce the amount of GLAR. Placement,thickness, and composition of the low refractive index material shouldbe selected to substantially reduce GLAR, as described below.

FIG. 5 is a simplified diagram illustrating an LED with low refractiveindex layers 508 on either side of the active region 506, according tosome embodiments. The LED grown on a bulk GaN substrate and n-GaN layer502 is flipped such that the p-GaN layer 504 is on a submount 503, andcomprises two low refractive index material layers 508 on either side ofthe active region 506. The presence of the low refractive index materiallayers 508 reduces the fraction of light being guided in the activeregion 506. Other light trajectories may exist for light 509 emitted bythe active region 506, such as light propagating to the outside medium507 and light guided in the host material 505 of the LED. Conventionallight-extracting features may be added to the LED to help extract suchforms of light. For example, the LED device can be shaped into a cubicshape, a triangular shape, a tetragonal shape, or a pyramidal shape. Asshown, the presence of low refractive index layers 508 minimizes orprevents a guided mode in the active region 510.

In some embodiments, a low refractive index material layer overlies theactive region. The low refractive index material layer is thick enoughand has an index of refractive low enough, such that the wavefunction ofthe guided mode is spread out away from the active region, therebyreducing or suppressing light emission/propagation within the guidedmode. According to certain embodiments, the low refractive indexmaterial has an index of refraction lower than the index of refractionof GaN.

FIGS. 6A and 6B contrast s guided mode profile shapes 600 betweendesigns having a conventional electron blocking layer (FIG. 6A) and alight emitting diode where the electron blocking layer is also designedas a low refractive index material layer to reduce light guiding effects(FIG. 6B). FIGS. 6A and 6B show sketches of LED structures in order toprovide details of structure in and around the vicinity of the activeregion. The guided mode profile is shown superimposed on the detail.

FIG. 6A shows a conventional LED structure, having a thin, low-contentAlGaN electron-blocking layer 601. FIG. 6A shows a p-GaN layer 604overlying a low-content AlGaN electron-blocking layer 601 overlyingactive region 603, which overlies n-GaN layer 605. As shown, the guidedmode 602 is strongly confined in the active region 603.

FIG. 6B is in accordance with certain embodiments, with a low refractiveindex material layer 606 of sufficient thickness and low index to pushthe guided mode profile 607 away from the active region 603. The lowrefractive index material layer 606 can also serve the usual functionsof an electron blocking layer, such as carrier confinement.

FIGS. 6A and 6B are simplified diagrams illustrating guided modeprofiles in an LED with a design having an electron blocking layer, anda design having a low refractive index material layer, respectively,according to some embodiments. The conventional structure includes astack having a p-doped layer, an n-doped layer, an active region (madeof a stack of quantum wells) and a thin AlGaN electron-blocking layer(EBL). In this structure, the guided mode is well confined in the activeregion. Since light emission into the guided mode is proportional to itsoverlap with the active region, the amount of GLAR is large.

In contrast, in the structure with a low refractive index material (LIM)layer as shown in FIG. 6B, the conventional electron-blocking layer isreplaced by a thicker layer with a lower index of refraction. The lowrefractive index material serves as an electron-blocking layer and alsosignificantly spreads the profile of the guided mode away from theactive region, so that the amount of GLAR is reduced. In certainembodiments, a low refractive index material layer is within at leastone optical wavelength of the active region, where the opticalwavelength is the emission wavelength or wavelength range of the LED. Incertain embodiments, a low refractive index layer is within 500 nm ofthe active region, within 300 nm of the active region, within 200 nm ofthe active region, and in certain embodiments, within 100 nm of theactive region. A low refractive index layer may be within an activeregion, adjacent the active region, or within a region adjacent theactive region, such as a cladding layer, a p-doped layer, or an −n-dopedlayer. In certain embodiments, a low refractive index layer made bedisposed in any combination of the foregoing. As used herein, when alayer is referred to as being above or below another layer, the relativeposition is not intended to be absolute and will depend on theorientation of a LED. Similarly, overlying and underlying to not denoteabsolute positions but rather depend on the orientation of a particularLED.

FIGS. 7A and 7B illustrate modeled guided mode profiles for an LED witha design having an electron blocking layer (EBL), and a design having alow refractive index material (LIM) layer, respectively, according tosome embodiments. For both FIGS. 7A and 7B, each LED includes tenquantum wells in the active region.

FIGS. 7A and 7B also show the index profiles of the LEDs. FIG. 7A showsan index profile based on an LED structure that includes a metalliccontact on the p-side and an AlGaN electron-blocking layer (Al₁₅GaN, 10nm thick). FIG. 7B shows an index profile based on an LED structurewhere the electron-blocking layer is replaced by a low refractive indexmaterial layer (Al₈₃InN, 40 nm thick). Here the low refractive indexmaterial serves as an electron-blocking layer and also substantiallyreduces light guiding. As can be seen in FIG. 7A, the guided mode iswell confined by the active region, despite the presence of anelectron-blocking layer. In contrast, as can be seen in FIG. 7B, theconfinement is reduced.

FIG. 8 illustrates modeling results for the fraction of light beingguided within the active region of an LED as a function of the number ofquantum wells, with various compositions of a low refractive indexmaterial layer. The low refractive index material layer is assumed to be20 nm thick in the modeling. The modeling results for an LED structurewith no electron-blocking layer and no low refractive index materiallayer is shown for reference (solid line).

As can been seen in FIG. 8, in the absence of any electron-blockinglayer or low refractive index material (solid line), guiding isstrongest. Inserting an electron-blocking layer (Al₁₀GaN, 20 nm thick)slightly reduces guiding. Using a low refractive index material made ofAl₂₅GaN or of AlInN lattice-matched to the GaN host, each of which hasan index of refraction lower than that of Al₁₀GaN, reduces guiding stillmore. Some designs in accordance with the compositions and thicknessescan substantially reduce the amount of GLAR, especially when the numberof quantum wells in the active region is about 5 to about 8. In someembodiments, one or several low refractive index material layers areinserted above and/or below the active region, e.g., toward the n-GaNand/or p-GaN layers.

FIG. 9 illustrates modeling results for the fraction of light beingguided in the active region of an LED as a function of number of quantumwells, for various thicknesses of a low refractive index material layer,according to some embodiments. The low refractive index materialcomprises AlInN lattice-matched to GaN. The modeling results for an LEDstructure with no electron-blocking layer and no low refractive indexmaterial layer is shown for reference (solid line). FIG. 9 furtherillustrates how the thickness and number of low refractive indexmaterial layers impact guided light emission. As can be seen in FIG. 9,placing a 20 nm-thick low refractive index material layer above theactive region reduces guiding as compared to an LED structure with noelectron blocking layer and no low refractive index material layer. Byincreasing the thickness of the low refractive index material layer, forexample to 40 nm thick, the fraction of guided light is further reduced.Further, placing two 40 nm-thick low refractive index material layer sonboth sides of the active region reduces guiding even more. In the lastcase, GLAR is substantially reduced or prevented even when the activeregion comprises 15 quantum wells.

The embodiments presented above are shown to reduce the amount of GLARfor a given number of quantum wells, but any of the shown variations donot significantly affect the asymptotic fraction of GLAR for a structurewith many quantum wells (e.g., 20 quantum wells or more). Thisasymptotic value can be reduced by lowering the average refractive indexin the active region. This is realized in some embodiments, such as theembodiments shown and described in FIG. 10, where the quantum barriersare made of a low refractive index material.

FIG. 10 illustrates modeling results for the fraction of light beingguided in the active region of an LED as a function of number of quantumwells, for various compositions of quantum barriers, according to someembodiments. FIG. 10 illustrates how the composition of the quantumbarriers impacts guided light emission. The modeling results for an LEDstructure with no electron-blocking layer and no low refractive indexmaterial layer is shown for reference (solid line). As can be seen inFIG. 10, when the quantum barriers are made of Al₁₀GaN, the fraction ofGLAR for a given number of quantum wells is reduced as compared to anLED structure with no electron blocking layer and no low refractiveindex material layer. Furthermore, the asymptotic fraction of GLAR isalso reduced. When the quantum barriers are made of Al₂₀GaN, which hasan index of refraction lower than that of Al₁₀GaN, both the fraction ofGLAR for a given number of quantum wells and the asymptotic fraction ofGLAR are further reduced.

Some embodiments may combine low refractive index material layers placedabove and below the active region with quantum barriers made of lowrefractive index material.

FIG. 11 illustrates modeling results for the fraction of light beingguided in the active region of an LED that uses low refractive indexmaterial barriers and low refractive index material electron barrierlayers, as a function of number of quantum wells, according to someembodiments. A curve based on an LED structure with no electron-blockinglayer and no low refractive index material layer (solid line) is shownfor reference. The dashed curve is based on a structure having a lowrefractive index material layer above the active region (Al₃₀GaN, 20 nmthick) and having quantum barriers made of a low refractive indexmaterial (Al₀₅GaN). As can be seen in FIG. 11, guiding is reduced in theLED that uses low refractive index material barriers and low refractiveindex material electron barrier layers as compared to the LED with noelectron-blocking layer and no low refractive index material.

Several of the embodiments shown enable the use of structures with 10quantum wells, with no or little GLAR.

As already mentioned, a superlattice layer (SL) is frequently grown inLEDs, overlying the active region in order to enhance performance.However the SL can have the detrimental effect of increasing GLAR byincreasing the amount of high-index material close to the active region.A superlattice layer is typically formed of a succession of thin InGaNlayers and GaN layers. In some cases a low-Indium content homogeneousInGaN layer is used instead of the SL. We also reference such a layer asan SL layer, as it serves a similar purpose and has similar effectsregarding GLAR.

FIG. 12 is a simplified diagram illustrating a guided mode profile in anLED that includes a superlattice layer (SL), according to someembodiments. The LED shown in FIG. 12 includes a p-GaN layer 1201overlying a thin electron blocking layer 1204, overlying an activeregion 1203, a superlattice 1202, and an n-GaN layer 1205. As shown inFIG. 12, the SL contributes to guiding of the mode 1210. Therefore, itmay be desirable to include low refractive index material layers withinor around the superlattice layer in order to mitigate the detrimentaleffects.

FIG. 13 illustrates modeling results for the fraction of light beingguided in the active region of an LED that includes low refractive indexlayers inserted in a superlattice layer, as a function of number ofquantum wells, according to some embodiments. The modeling results forthe fraction of light being guided in the active region of an LEDwithout electron barrier layer, and with and without a superlatticelayer, are also shown for comparison. As can be seen in FIG. 13, when atypical SL made of alternating thin layers of GaN and InGaN is added,GLAR is significantly increased when the number of quantum wells is lessthan about 5, as compared to an LED without superlattice layer. Also ascan be seen in FIG. 13, when a LIM electron blocking layer (e.g., 20 nmthick, made of AlInN) is placed above the active region, and the SL ismodified to include LIM layers, GLAR is reduced compared to an LED witha SL when the number of quantum wells is less than about 12. GLAR isalso reduced compared to an LED without SL and without EBL if the numberof quantum wells is less than about 15. In this illustrative example,the SL is made of alternating layers of AlGaN and InGaN, where the AlGaNlayers act as LIM layers and serve to lower the average refractive indexof the SL.

Accordingly, some embodiments reduce the guiding effect of the SL In onesuch embodiment, the GaN/InGaN SL is replaced with a low refractiveindex material/InGaN superlattice (such as an AlGaN/InGaN SL or anAlInN/InGaN SL) so that the average refractive index of the SL islowered and guiding is reduced. In another embodiment, the GaN/InGaN SLis replaced with a GaN/LIM superlattice (such as GaN/AlInGaN SL) wherethe low refractive index material has the same beneficial effects asInGaN would in some embodiments of an SL, but its low refractive indexmitigates guiding. In another such embodiment, the SL is clad betweentwo low refractive index material layers.

The embodiments described above consider uses of a low refractive indexmaterial layer which is made of a homogeneous material, such as AlGaN,AlInN or AlInGaN. However, in some embodiments, the composition of thelow refractive index material layer is not homogeneous. In someembodiments, the low refractive index material layer is a superlattice(such as a GaN/AlGaN superlattice or a GaN/AlInN superlattice). In otherembodiments the low refractive index material layer has a varyingcomposition across its growth direction, such as a layer of gradedstoichiometry.

As has been mentioned previously, the low refractive index materiallayer may serve an additional purpose as an electron-blocking layer. Insome embodiments, a low refractive index material layer may also beplaced below the active region and serve as a hole-blocking layer.

As has been shown, it its possible, and sometimes desirable, to useseveral LIM layers placed around the active region. The multiple LIMlayers may combine to reduce GLAR.

Accordingly, some embodiments are directed to achieving a specificcumulative thickness for the LIM layers, such that GLAR is substantiallyreduced. In some of these embodiments, a LIM layer of a given thicknessis grown below the active region and another LIM layer is grown abovethe active region with a thickness such that the cumulative thickness ofthe LIM layers is greater than a target value.

As mentioned, some embodiments may combine the use of LIM layers toreduce GLAR, with other light-extracting features to increase extractionof the light which propagates across bulk of the LED. In some suchembodiments, LIM layers are combined with surface roughening of LED.This can be obtained by growing epitaxial material that includes LIMlayers, forming an LED chip with such material, and forming surfaceroughness on at least some of the facets of the LED. Similarly, otherembodiments may combine the use of LIM layers with otherlight-extracting structures, such as a macroscopic shaping of the LEDdie.

Some embodiments may be implemented over others from the standpoint ofepitaxial feasibility. Differences in lattice constant lead to strainand can make epitaxial growth challenging. For example, some AlInGaNcompounds may have a large lattice constant difference with respect tothe host material of the LED (such as GaN). In such cases, the maximumthickness of the corresponding low refractive index material layer islimited. Therefore, it may be desirable to limit the lattice mismatch.In some embodiments, the low refractive index material islattice-matched or substantially lattice-matched to the host material ofthe LED. One example is Al₈₃InN, as the lattice of the low refractiveindex material Al₈₃InN is close to being lattice-matched to GaN. Inother embodiments, the low refractive index material is lattice-matchedor substantially lattice-matched to the lattice constant of the quantumwells.

In Group III-nitride materials, polarization fields may be present inthe heterostructure. It may be desirable to lower the intensity of thesefields. In some embodiments, the low refractive index material ispolarization-matched or substantially polarization-matched to GaN. Inother embodiments, the low refractive index is polarization-matched orsubstantially polarization-matched to the quantum wells.

In some embodiments, the LED is a Group III-nitride LED having a surfaceorientation along a semipolar interface. In other embodiments, the LEDis a Group III-nitride LED having a surface orientation along anon-polar interface.

FIG. 14 is a simplified flowchart illustrating a method of making anLED. Such a method and other methods are discussed infra. The methodincludes providing a substrate 1410, depositing an n-doped layeroverlying the substrate 1420, depositing an active region comprising atleast one layer of light-emitting material overlying the substrate 1430,depositing a p-doped layer overlying the substrate 1440, and depositingat least one low refractive index layer within at least one wavelengthof the active region, the low refractive index layer configured tosubstantially reduce light guiding by the active region 1450.

FIG. 15 shows experimental results of refractive index versus wavelengthfor a variety of III-nitride layers. To design specific embodiments, itmay be desirable to employ modeling and use accurate values of therefractive index of respective layers. FIG. 15 illustrates experimentalvalues of refractive index 1500 for various III-nitride layers, obtainedby spectroscopic ellipsometry. The following layers are included in FIG.15: GaN (1502), InGaN with a band gap of 410 nm (1504), AlGaN with aband gap of 320 nm (1506), InGaN with a band gap of 380 nm (1508). FIG.15 also shows the emission spectrum 1510 of a Group III-nitride activeregion emitting around 400 nm. By using the full dispersion ofrefractive index shown on FIG. 15, embodiments can be accurately designto decrease or eliminate GLAR. Layers of various compositions can begrown and characterized to this effect.

FIG. 16 shows values of refractive index 1600 versus compoundcomposition, derived from experimental results. FIG. 16 shows therefractive index of various compounds at a wavelength of 415 nm. Theindex of GaN 1602 is indicated. Further, the index of InGaN 1604 andAlGaN 1606 are indicated as a function of In and Al composition,respectively. FIG. 16 can be employed to design successions of layerswith a given average index. For instance, a superlattice made of AlGaNand InGaN layers of similar thickness where the Al and In compositionare similar, has an average index which is similar to that of GaN. Thisis because the index increase in the InGaN layers is compensated by theindex decrease in the AlGaN layers. Such a design may be desirable todecrease or suppress GLAR.

In some embodiments, it is desirable to grown so-called “dummy quantumwells” (DQW). DQW are quantum well layers with a higher band gap thanthe band gap of the active region. For instance, in the case of an InGaNLED, the DQW may be quantum wells in which the In content is lower thanthat of the active region. DQWs do not emit a substantial amount oflight but can improve the performance of the LED for instance byimproving the structural quality of the crystal or by integratingdefects. DQW may be grown in the vicinity of the active region, forinstance above or below the active region.

FIG. 17 shows the index profile 1700 of a specific epitaxial structurewhich includes a DQW, as a function of position across the epitaxialstack. The position x=0 corresponds to the top of the stack. Variouslayers are present in the structure of FIG. 17. They include GaN 1702(present both at the n- and p-sides of the stack); an EBL 1704; theactive region 1706 (comprising quantum wells and barriers); a stack ofDQW and their barriers 1708; and a superlattice 1710 (only the averageindex in the superlattice is shown, although it may comprise asuccession of lower- and higher-index layers).

Structures similar to that of FIG. 17 may be used in some embodiments.In some embodiments, the superlattice may comprise InGaN and a LIM suchas AlGaN layers. In some embodiments, the barriers of the DQW maycomprise a LIM such as AlGaN. In some embodiments, the barriers in theactive region may comprise a LIM such as AlGaN. In some embodiments, theEBL may comprise a LIM such as AlGaN. The thickness and composition ofsaid LIM layers may be selected to reduce or suppress GLAR. Likewise,the number of DQW and emitting quantum wells may be selected to reduceor suppress GLAR.

FIG. 18 described an experimental setup 1800 used to detect the presenceof GLAR. FIG. 18 shows how GLAR can be detected. Excitation by a laser1802 causes photoluminescence 1804. Some of the luminescence is emittedinto GLAR 1806 which can propagate to the edge of the sample and becollected by a detector 1808 such as a camera.

FIG. 19 shows camera images 1900 collected on a setup such as that ofFIG. 18. FIG. 19 compares two samples. The left image 1902 correspondsto a sample grown using a standard epitaxial stack and the right image1904 a sample grown using an epitaxial stack which suppresses GLAR. Thelatter stack is similar to that depicted in FIG. 17. A bright line 1906is observed on the left image 1902: it corresponds to guided lightreaching the sample edge. No signal is observed on the right image 1904(collected under similar conditions). This manifests the absence of GLARin epitaxial design (e.g., compare left image 1902 to right image 1904).

In some embodiments, a double-heterostructure (DH) active region may beemployed rather than a quantum well stack. In some embodiments, theepitaxial structure may comprise a DH and one or several DQW grown belowor above the DH. In some embodiments, the barriers of the DQW regionsmay comprise LIM layers.

FIG. 20 shows the index profile 2000 of a specific epitaxial structurewhich includes DQW and a DH, as a function of position across theepitaxial stack. The position x=0 corresponds to the top of the stack.Various layers are present in the structure of FIG. 20. They include GaN2002 (present both at the n- and p-sides of the stack); an EBL 2004; astack of DQW and their barriers 2006; the DH active region 2008; a stackof DQW and their barriers 2010; and a superlattice 2012 (only theaverage index in the superlattice is shown, although it may comprise asuccession of lower- and higher-index layers).

Structures similar to that of FIG. 20 may be used in some embodiments.In some embodiments, the superlattice may comprise InGaN and a LIM suchas AlGaN layers. In some embodiments, the barriers of the DQW maycomprise a LIM such as AlGaN. In some embodiments, the EBL may comprisea LIM such as AlGaN. The thickness and composition of said LIM layersmay be selected to reduce or suppress GLAR. Likewise, the number of DQWon either side of the DH, and the thickness of the DH, may be selectedto reduce or suppress GLAR.

In some embodiments, the LED is a Group III-nitride LED. In someembodiments, the composition of the SL layers is such that the averagerefractive index of the SL does not exceed that of GaN by more than0.05. In some embodiments, the composition of the EBL is such that itsrefractive index is less than that of GaN minus 0.05. In someembodiments, the composition of the DQW and their barriers is such thatthe average refractive index of the DQW region does not exceed that ofGaN by more than 0.05. All these values pertain to the wavelength ofpeak emission.

In an embodiment, the LED is a Group III-nitride LED whose epitaxialstructure comprises the following layers:

-   -   a series of n-doped layers;    -   an AlGaN/InGaN superlattice whose average index does not exceed        that of GaN by more than 0.05;    -   a GaN barrier;    -   a series of InGaN DQW with AlGaN barriers, such that the average        index of this region does not exceed that of GaN by more than        0.05, and the number of DQWs is between zero and 20;    -   an active region composed of a DH or a series of quantum wells,        such that the total amount of active material is less than 50        nm;    -   a series of InGaN DQW with GaN or AlGaN barriers where the        number of DQW is between zero and five;    -   a GaN barrier;    -   an EBL whose refractive index is lower than that of GaN minus        0.05; and    -   a series of p-layers.

As a further way to reduce the GLAR fraction, some embodiments employlight-emitting layers in which the composition is inhomogeneous. Forinstance, in the case of a Group III-nitride LED, some embodimentsemploy InGaN light-emitting layers where the In composition is variedacross at least one light-emitting layer, such as quantum wells ordouble heterostructures with a stepped or graded In profile. Thevariation in In composition may help reduce the average refractive indexin the active region, and contribute to reducing or suppressing emissionof GLAR.

The phenomenon of GLAR may be expected in a variety of LED structures.For instance, it may be expected in typical structures emitting light inthe range 200-1,000 nm. As the emission wavelength of the LED increases,the index contrast between the host material (for instance GaN) and theemitting layer (for instance InGaN) usually increases, leading to alarger fraction of GLAR.

FIG. 21 shows the index profile 2100 of a specific epitaxial structureas a function of position across the epitaxial stack. The position x=0corresponds to the top of the stack. FIG. 21 comprises GaN layers 2102,an EBL 2104, four quantum wells 2106 and a superlattice 2108. The fourquantum wells are 4.5 nm thick and their barriers are 3.5 nm thick. TheEBL contains 10% Al and is 10 nm thick. The average In content in thesuperlattice is 4%. FIG. 21 is a simple LED structure which does notcontain a large amount of In. Therefore, it can be considered as aconservative structure regarding the existence of GLAR. FIG. 21 isrepresentative of some commercially available LED structures.

FIG. 22 shows the amount of guided light 2200 as a function of the LED'semission wavelength, for the structure of FIG. 21. FIG. 22 indicates thefraction of total emitted light which is emitted into GLAR, as afunction of the emission wavelength of the LED. The fraction of GLARincreases for longer emission wavelength. This is due to the largerrefractive index contrast between the quantum wells and GaN. FIG. 22indicates that simple blue-emitting LED structures suffer from GLAR,which limits their performance.

FIG. 23 shows the amount of guided light 2200 as a function of the LED'semission wavelength, for a structure similar to that of FIGS. 21 and 22but with LIM layers. The structure considered in FIG. 23 comprises anAl₀₅GaN/In₀₄GaN superlattice, Al₁₅GaN quantum well barriers and a 20-nmthick Al₂₀GaN EBL. All these layers constitute LIM layers, as describedfor other embodiments. The fraction of guided light is substantiallylower in FIG. 23 than in FIG. 22. For an LED emitting at 450 nm, thefraction of GLAR can be reduced tenfold.

Therefore, the techniques herein are relevant throughout a wide varietyof wavelengths ranges and LED designs. It may improve performancesubstantially beyond commercially available LED epitaxial stacks.Moreover, the use of LIM to reduce the fraction of GLAR may have asignificant impact on the performance of an LED. In certain embodiments,the use of LIM may affect the net extraction efficiency of the device byone or more percentage points, such as from 1% to 3%, from 1% to 5%, orfrom 1% to 10%.

FIG. 24 shows the modeled net extraction efficiency 2400 for LEDs as afunction of the number of quantum wells in the structure. The LEDs underconsideration are bulk GaN LEDs with surface roughness. In the absenceof any guiding and active region re-absorption, their extractionefficiency is about 77%. In the case of a standard epitaxial structurewhere no care was taken to design LIM layers, the extraction efficiency2402 is substantially affected by the number of quantum wells. Use ofsix quantum wells degrades extraction by about 4%. If well-designed LIMlayers are used, the extraction efficiency 2404 is only weakly impactedby the number of quantum wells; the only impact in this case is theabsorption of propagating light by the quantum wells. FIG. 24 shows thatembodiments of the invention can improve an LED's performance by one orseveral percentage points.

A possible set of steps to obtain a device embodiments is as follows:

-   -   grow a set of conventional epitaxial layers (such as a GaN        buffer and n-doped GaN) on an epitaxial substrate;    -   further grow a superlattice stack which includes LIM layers;    -   further grow an active region made of several quantum wells and        barriers;    -   further grow a LIM layer which also serves as an EBL;    -   further grow a stack of p-doped GaN layer; and    -   process the resulting epitaxial material in order to form an LED        chip.

Processing can include steps (e.g., within the aforementioned steps orbefore or after the aforementioned steps). For example, any knownprocessing techniques might be used to produce light-extractingfeatures, such as surface roughness, to the LED chip.

FIG. 14 is a simplified flowchart illustrating a method of making anLED, according to some embodiments. As shown, an LED device may beformed using several processing steps. The processing steps can beindividually partitioned, and any aspect or materials of one processstep can be provided to another process using path 1405. As shown, themethod comprises:

-   -   providing a substrate (see processing step 1410);    -   depositing an n-doped layer above the substrate (see processing        step 1420);    -   depositing an active region comprised of at least one layer of        light-emitting material above the substrate (see processing step        1430);    -   depositing a p-doped layer above the substrate (see processing        step 1440); and    -   depositing at least one low refractive index layer in or around        the active region, the low refractive index layer formed to        substantially reduce light guiding by the active region (see        processing step 1450).

It should be appreciated that the specific steps illustrated in FIG. 14provide a particular method of making an LED according to an embodimentof the present invention. Other sequences of steps may also be performedaccording to alternative embodiments. For example, alternativeembodiments of the present invention may perform the steps outlinedabove in a different order. Moreover, the individual steps illustratedin FIG. 14 may include multiple sub-steps that may be performed invarious sequences as appropriate to the individual step. Furthermore,additional steps may be added or removed depending on the particularapplications. One of ordinary skill in the art would recognize manyvariations, modifications, and alternatives.

The foregoing description of the exemplary embodiments has beenpresented only for the purposes of illustration and description and isnot intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to the preciseforms disclosed. Many modifications and variations are possible in lightof the above teaching.

The embodiments were chosen and described in order to explain theprinciples of the invention and their practical application so as toenable others skilled in the art to utilize the invention and variousembodiments and with various modifications as are suited to theparticular use contemplated. Alternative embodiments will becomeapparent to those skilled in the art to which the present inventionpertains without departing from its spirit and scope. Accordingly, thescope of the present invention is defined by the appended claims ratherthan the foregoing description and the exemplary embodiments describedtherein.

What is claimed is:
 1. A light-emitting diode comprising: at least onen-doped layer; at least one p-doped layer; an active region comprisingof at least one layer of light-emitting material, disposed between theat least one n-doped layer and the at least one p-doped layer; and atleast one low refractive index layer disposed within one opticalwavelength of the active region, the low refractive index layerconfigured to substantially reduce light guiding by the active region.2. The light-emitting diode of claim 1, wherein less than 10% of totallight emitted by the light-emitting material is guided by the activeregion.
 3. The light-emitting diode of claim 1, wherein less than 2% oftotal light emitted by the light-emitting material is guided by theactive region.
 4. The light-emitting diode of claim 1, furthercomprising an additional light-extracting feature.
 5. The light-emittingdiode of claim 4, wherein the additional light-extracting featurecomprises shaping the LED into at least one of, a cubic shape, atriangular shape, a tetragonal shape, or, a pyramidal shape.
 6. Thelight-emitting diode of claim 4, wherein the additional light-extractingfeature comprises a surface roughness from about 200 nm to about 10 μumformed on one or more surfaces of the light-emitting diode.
 7. Thelight-emitting diode of claim 1, wherein the LED comprises a GroupIII-nitride material.
 8. The light-emitting diode of claim 7, whereinthe Group III-nitride material is characterized by a surface orientationselected from a non-polar crystallographic orientation and semipolarcrystallographic orientation.
 9. The light-emitting diode of claim 7,wherein the substrate comprises a bulk Group III-nitride material. 10.The light-emitting diode of claim 1, wherein the at least one lowrefractive index material layer comprises a non-homogeneous materialcomposition.
 11. The light-emitting diode of claim 1, wherein the atleast one low refractive index material layer is configured as a carrierconfinement layer.
 12. The light-emitting diode of claim 1, wherein theactive region is characterized by a cumulative thickness of at least 10nm.
 13. The light-emitting diode of claim 1, wherein the active regionis characterized by a cumulative thickness less than 100 nm.
 14. Thelight-emitting diode of claim 1, wherein the at least one low refractiveindex material layer is disposed on one side of the active region, onboth sides of the active region, within the active region, or acombination of any of the foregoing
 15. The light-emitting diode ofclaim 1, wherein the active region comprises two or more quantum wells,wherein at least one barrier layer between the two or more quantum wellscomprises a low refractive index material.
 16. The light-emitting diodeof claim 1, further comprising an additional layer overlying the activeregion such as an InGaN superlattice, wherein a low refractive indexmaterial layer is disposed within less than one wavelength of thesuperlattice.
 17. The light-emitting diode of claim 1, wherein the atleast one low refractive index layer is substantially lattice matched toa host material of the light-emitting diode.
 18. The light-emittingdiode of claim 1, wherein the at least one low refractive index materiallayer is substantially lattice matched to the material forming theactive region.
 19. The light-emitting diode of claim 1, wherein the atleast one low refractive index layer is substantially polarizationmatched to a host material of the light-emitting diode.
 20. Thelight-emitting diode of claim 1, wherein the at least one low refractiveindex layer is substantially polarization matched to the materialforming the active region.
 21. The light-emitting diode of claim 1,wherein the active region including the low refractive index layers ischaracterized by an average refractive index from 0% to 5% higher thanthe refractive index of a host material.
 22. The light-emitting diode ofclaim 1, wherein the active region comprises one or moredouble-heterostructure layers.
 23. The light-emitting diode of claim 1,wherein additional material comprising low-composition quantum wellsthat do not emit a substantial amount of light, is grown above or belowthe active region.
 24. The light-emitting diode of claim 23, wherein atleast one layer surrounding the low-composition quantum-wells forms alow refractive index material layer.
 25. The light-emitting diode ofclaim 1, wherein the LED is characterized by an emission wavelength fromabout 200 nm to about 1000 nm.
 26. The light-emitting diode of claim 1,wherein the LED is characterized by an emission wavelength is in a rangeof about 390 nm to about 430 nm.
 27. The light-emitting diode of claim1, wherein the LED is characterized by an emission wavelength is in arange of about 430 nm to about 470 nm.
 28. The light-emitting diode ofclaim 1, wherein at least one layer of light-emitting material has adifferent material composition than another layer of light-emittingmaterial.
 29. A light-emitting diode comprising: at least one n-dopedlayer comprising a gallium-nitride-based material at least one p-dopedlayer comprising a gallium-nitride-based material an AlGaN/InGaNsuperlattice characterized by an average refractive index that is lessthan whose average index does not exceed that of GaN by more than 0.05;an active region comprising a series of quantum wells or one or moredouble heterostructures, wherein the active region is characterized by atotal thickness of less than 50 nm; and an electron blocking layer whoserefractive index is lower than that of GaN minus 0.05.
 30. Thelight-emitting diode of claim 29, further comprising a series of InGaNquantum wells with a lower composition than the light-emitting quantumwells that do not emit a substantial amount of light, positioned eitherabove or below the light-emitting quantum wells.
 31. A light-emittingdiode comprising: at least one n-doped layer comprising agallium-nitride-based material; at least one p-doped layer comprising agallium-nitride-based material; an active region disposed between the atleast one n-doped layer and the at least one p-doped layer, the activeregion comprising one or more layers formed of anindium-gallium-nitride-based material; and at least one low refractiveindex material layer disposed between the at least one p-doped layer andthe active region, or between the at least one n-doped layer and theactive region, wherein the at least one low refractive index materiallayer has an index of refraction lower than an index of refraction ofgallium nitride.
 32. The light-emitting diode device of claim 31,wherein the at least one low refractive index material layer comprisesan aluminum-indium-gallium-nitride-based material.
 33. A method offabricating a light-emitting diode comprising: providing a substrate,the substrate including a surface region comprising agallium-nitride-based material; forming at least one n-doped layercoupled to the surface region of the substrate, the at least one n-dopedlayer comprising a gallium-nitride-based material; forming an activeregion coupled to the n-doped layer, the active region comprising one ormore layers formed of an indium-gallium-nitride-based material; formingat least one p-doped layer coupled to the active region, the at leastone p-doped layer comprising a gallium-nitride-based material; andforming at least one low refractive index material layer disposedbetween the at least one p-doped layer and the active region, or betweenthe at least one n-doped layer and the active region, wherein the atleast one low refractive index layer has an index of refraction lowerthan an index of refraction of gallium nitride and the low refractiveindex layer is formed to substantially reduce light guiding by theactive region.